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• The first letter of the alphabet is Hamza. However, since Alif is usually the chair of the Hamza, it comes first in the alphabet. Hamza chairs can also be ؤ (Wāw) or ئـ / ـئـ / ئ (Yā’). Hamza can also occur independently ء.

• However, Hamza can also occur independently: أَنْتَ ‘anta (you), أُمّ ‘umm (mother), إِنْ ‘in (if).

• In this textbook for methodological reasons the Hamza vocalized with Fatḥa and sitting on Alif as chair is always written أَ, except for the Hamzat waṣl (↑L2).

• Alif at the end of a word may also indicate the accusative and should be read »–an« zu lesen: šukran شُكْرًا (Thank you).

• This textbook does not consider Hamza in the initial position when transliterating Arabic words. Thus, words like أَنْتَ، أُمّ، إِنْ are written umm, anta, in and not ‘umm, ‘anta, ‘in.

• At the end of a word Yā’ (ى) without the two dots below may also express a long ā. Thus, in order to differentiate it from Yā’, pronounced as ī, it is usually written with the two dots in the final position: ي.

• Allāh (God) is always written in the form الله. The Shadda above the Lām shows the doubling of the Lām; the small Alif above the Shadda (dagger Alif) indicates the pronunciation of a long ā. Reading Arabic calligraphy requires some experience. The following images stand for In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate:

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